Nationalism and the origins of The first world war Essay Example for Free

Nationalism and the origins of The first world war Essay When global war broke out in 1914 dreams of world peace and prosperity were shattered. Accordingly, the First World War was arguably one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of international affairs. Geopolitically speaking, the First World War (also described as WWI in this essay) was unprecedented in both scale and sheer loss of human life. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage and violence perpetuated through the use of modern technology. The First World War touched much of the world and the implications of this conflict reverberated across the globe. Seeking to understand the historical explanations as well as the role that nationalism played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay will explore the multiple causes of the development of global hostilities in 1914. Using a three pronged analytical model, the causes of the WWI will be discusses with reference to the pre-conditions and precipitants for conflict and the triggers which sparked the war. Understanding that WWI was an international event with global repercussions, we will analyze the various antecedents for the emergence of armed conflict through a multi-causal approach. This essay will argue that a variety of factors led to the outbreak of the First World War and while there is not one single causal explanation for the emergence of global conflict in 1914, a proper explanation of the origins of this conflict takes into account the amalgamation of each of these factors. While nationalism was an important factor leading to the outbreak of international conflict between the warring parties, this essay will argue that in fact, nationalism was an important precursors to the emergence of conflict but the sole and deciding force in the violence which erupted on the shores of Europe and reverberated across the planet. Although the First World War has recently been overshadowed in the aftermath of the WWII, this conflict was the first in terms of scale and sheer destruction and thus continues to be worthy of scholarly analysis. Nationalism in International Affairs Nationalism is an important force in international relations and has been so for centuries. As a basic principle of the international order, concepts of state sovereignty are intrinsic to our understanding of the world system. Accordingly, the international system is predicated upon the existence of nation-states and nationalism is a belief or sense of identity within the nation. The Treaty of Westphalia established the principle of state sovereignty, another fundamental principle of the international order which established the nation-state as an autonomous political entity. Similar to tribalism or a sense of social kinship, nationalism as a potent political force began in Europe in the late eightieth century and was connected with a decline in overall religiosity, the development of industrialization, Enlightenment thoughts and a concerted effort by political elites to â€Å"build states†. By inculcating a sense of nationalist fervor in the citizens of their respective countries, elites have been able to manipulate nationalism for political purposes. Mass mobilization towards a variety of specific causes through an appeal to nationalist sentiment has been used as a political tool for centuries. Although not exclusively a negative force, nationalism remains an important ordering principle of the international system and a force to be reckoned with (Anderson 2006). Preconditions to the Outbreak of Conflict There were a variety of preconditions to the emergence of the conflict, which up until that date, had been the largest that the world had ever seen. The First World War represented the dueling alliances of the Triple Entente composed of Britain, France and Russia – and the Triple Alliance – comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Pre-conditions are best described as the precursors to conflict and there were many underlying long-term causes for the belligerent behaviour of the states of Europe in 1914. An arms race, underway for years, and growing at a rapid pace just prior to the emergence of the First World War set the stage for violent conflict between the major states of the region. Accordingly, the arms race occurring at the time exacerbated the global balance of power and led to an increased likelihood of aggressive behavior between the armies of Europe. As the European armies grew and competed with one another for size, manpower and prestige, the naval race between German and Britain contributed to a partition of the major states of the continent into two opposing camps. Competition was surely facilitated by nationalist tendencies and a desire to counterbalance the political, diplomatic and military ambitions of one’s rival. In addition to international arms races, domestic pressures and a willingness of the part of the citizens of some countries to engage in war helped precipitate the conflict. Accordingly, the diplomatic isolation of Germany, Austro-Hungary was another important contributor to the outbreak of global war in 1914. German nationalism, largely ignored in the settlement of the Congress of Vienna almost one hundred years before, did experience a resurgence particularly after the imposition of what was then conceived by many to be an unfair Treaty in Vienna and gained prominence in the middle to late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Accordingly, a German nationalism movement led a revolution to unify the country in 1871 – a similar movement in Italy served to unite that country in 1861 – and remained an important, although not solely important, force in attempting to explain the preconditions of conflict in 1914 (Joll and Martel 1992). In addition to the pre-conditions above, a series of crises from 1904-1914 also helped pave the way for the emergence of the First World War and were important pre-cursors to this conflict. The First Moroccan Crisis from 1905-1906 resulted in a German offensive which created the Entente. This was followed by the Bosnia-Herzegovina Crisis of 1908/1909 in which Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. This important precursor to future conflict forced Russia to reevaluate its geopolitical situation and in turn view Germany and Austro-Hungary as a potential threat. The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911-1912) united Russia, Britain and France against Germany and was an important stabilizer for the Triple Entente informal alliance. The final conflicts which were important pre-conditions to the outbreak of violence in 1914 were the Balkan Wars 1912-13. These series of wars removed the Ottoman Empire from the equation and led to an impressive German arms build-up (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). On the Cusp of War: Precipitants to Conflict Precipitants are short-term crises that made the war seem inevitable and a series of crises, beginning with the assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, made large-scale war in Europe seem like an inevitability. In fact, the months of late June/early July were replete with crises beginning with the violent assassination in Serbia of the Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Assassinated on Serbia’s national day by a violent terrorist organization, the Black Hand, this event alone is described by many observers of the First World War as perhaps the most monumental precipitant to the outbreak of hostilities between the major powers of Europe. Following his violent death at the hands of a Serbian nationalist, Germany unilaterally supported the right of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to respond as it saw fit. This led to successive increases in belligerence on both sides and an ultimatum by Austria-Hungary to Serbia (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Triggers and the Outbreak of War There are a variety of direct antecedents to the War of 1914 and the following will describe the important triggers for the world’s largest military mobilization to-date in the aftermath of the assassination of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While there is not one single event which explains the emergence of large-scale conflict, the following will chart the important triggers which led to the internationalization of conflict and the explosion of a truly global war. Serbia’s rejection of the ultimatum put forth by the Austro-Hungarian represented a desire on its part to safeguard its independence. By rejecting the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum and seeking Russian support, the Serbian republic unwittingly set the stage for the bloodiest war the world had ever known. Serbian intransigence and refusal to acquiesce to the demands of Austria-Hungary set the stage for Russian involvement which internationalized the conflict and significantly increased its scope. At the time, the Russian army was the largest army on the planet and the inclusion of Russia into the dispute significantly increased its scope and explosive potential. Following the introduction of Russia into the equation, the first four days of August 1914 proved to significantly expand the horizons of the conflict. During those first few days of the month, Germany declared war on Russia and its ally France, leading to the mobilization of Britain and the further internationalization of belligerence. Germany’s decision to declare war on Russia and the Entente powers represented an important expansion of the conflict on the side of the Triple Alliance and set the stage for the mobilization and later involvement of Britain in the brewing hostilities (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Origins of the â€Å"Mass War† and Nationalism At the outbreak of World War One, states mobilized what scholars have described as â€Å"mass wars†: the uniquely modern phenomenon of warfare developed in the twentieth century which required the wholesale diversion of economies, labour and national productivity towards the war effort (44). Accordingly, â€Å"from 1914 on, wars were unmistakably mass wars†¦such a level of mass mobilization cannot be maintained except by a modern high-productivity industrialized economy. † (Hobsbawm 1994). State apparatuses grew and â€Å"mass wars† required governments to mobilize people, resources, and armaments to serve the war effort. Citizens were conscripted to fight, industry was instructed to produce arms, and the government became intimately involved in the establishment of monopolistic war economies. Although nationalism did play a role in the establishment of war economies and the growth of military-industrial complexes built up to support the war effort, many factors account for call to arms and the descent into extreme bloodshed and violence during the First World War. Mass mobilization towards the war effort was certainly helped by nationalist fervor as the belligerent parties prepared for conflict which until then would have been on an unimaginable scale, but as has been shown above, nationalism is just one part of the equation in attempting to explain the origins of the First World War (Hobsbawm 1994). Concluding Remarks As one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of the world, the First World War represented geopolitical conflict on an unprecedented scale. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage, bloodshed and violence. Seeking to understand the historical explanations and discuss the role that nationalism has played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay has explored the antecedents for conflict in 1914. Important preconditions, precipitants and triggers have accounted for the emergence of this conflict. Nationalism, although an important factor which can help explain the emergence of World War One, is actually only one aspect of the overall conditions which lay the groundwork for World War One. Nationalism may be a guiding principle of the international order but a focus which exclusively explores the role of nationalism in the causes of war gives an incomplete picture of this global conflict. While nationalism may have been a force in the establishment of alliances in Europe, there were a handful of other preconditions, precipitants and triggers which led to this conflict. As this essay has shown, many factors led to the violent episode now known as the Second World War and while each factor differed in substance, each contributed to the emergence of the â€Å"War to End All Wars†. REFERENCES Anderson, B. 2006. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso. Hobsbawm, E. 1994. Age of Extremes: The Short History of the Twentieth Century: 1914-1991. London: Abacus. James Joll, J. and G. Martel. 1992. The Origins of the First World War. New York: Longman. McEvedy, C. 2003. The New Penguin Atlas of History. New York: Penguin. Strachan, H. 2001. The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War. London: Oxford University Press.

Patrice Lumumba’s Struggle Against Belgian Imperialism Essay -- Politi

Patrice Lumumba’s Struggle Against Belgian Imperialism It is hard to believe that in 2002 there is still imperialism being practiced in the world, but the fact of the matter is, it is. Imperialism is the policy of extending a nation’s territory or power by establishing dominance over other nations. A modern example of imperialism is the Congo. At the 1885 Berlin Conference, where the European powers carved up most of Africa among themselves, they sanctioned the claim of Belgian King Leopold II to sole authority over the Congo, a land mass 75 times the area of Belgium. The Congo was virtually his private property. He wiped out some 10 million people, around half the population, in his determination to extract every last penny of profit.[1] The Congo, later renamed Zaire, and now called the Democratic Republic of Congo, is endowed with immense mineral wealth in. At the time of the rise of the independence movement in 1958, Congo was among the world's largest producer of copper, uranium, cobalt, industrial diamonds, and rubber.[2] In the late 1950s and early 1960s there was a mass movement of resistance against the Belgian government. At the forefront of this struggle was Patrice Lumumba. In October 1958 Lumumba, a former postal employee, helped to found the Congolese National Movement (MNC), the first nationwide Congolese political party.[3] MNC gained much mass appeal because it united the Congolese people across the divisions of language and culture in a struggle against the imperialist rulers. The Belgian government buckled under the pressure of the resistance and reluctantly agreed to declare June 30, 1960 Independence Day and to hold free elections. MNC won more seats then any other party and Lu... ... the Congolese people when he wrote, â€Å"This is a fearsome story of colonial brutality, of the way in which the United Nations serves the world's major powers, and of the primacy of profit over democracy.†[9] People from South Korea to Puerto Rico are struggling against imperialism. Lumumba’s fight has been documented in numerous books and movies. It is important that oppressed people learn from other oppressed people in the movement to end imperialism. [1] Charlie Kimber, Dark Heart of Imperialism, Issue 92 of â€Å"International Socialism Journal,† Autumn 2001, http://www.isj1text.ble.org.uk/pubs/isj92/kimber.htm [2] Brian Williams, Imperialism vs. Congolese Freedom Struggle, Issue 28/Vol 65 â€Å"The Militant,† July 23 2001, http://www.themilitant.com/2001/6528/652852.html [3] Ibid [4] Ibid [5] Ibid [6] Kimber [7] Ibid [8] Ibid [9] Ibid

The Scarlet Letter and the Awakening

The Scarlet Letter is a novel based on the commitment of the sin of adultery. Hester, the main character, slept with another man, thus having a child with him while she was already married. The Awakening is novel that is based on selfhood and feminism. Edna does not love her husband the way that he loves her, so she gains feelings for several other men. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel, The Scarlet Letter, and Kate Chopin’s, The Awakening, both have similar motifs, yet differentiate in many ways, like the actions of Hester and Edna, symbolism in each novel, and how the other characters affect Hester and Edna, which all affect the views on women and femininity. Hester commits adultery by sleeping with Arthur Dimmesdale thus causing her to have a baby with him that she loves dearly. The problem is that Hester already has a husband, whose name is Chillingworth, but she did not love him as much he loved her. Now, she has to wear a scarlet letter, which is an â€Å"A,† on her chest at all times until she finally reveals who the father of her child is. â€Å"Here, there was the taint of deepest sin in the most sacred quality of human life, working such effect that the world was only the darker for this woman’s beauty, and the more lost for the infant that she had borne. † (Hawthorne, 54) The sin that Hester created is hidden behind her beauty and her child. Divine Maternity is a great image for Puritans, which Hester was. As for Edna, she also does not love her husband but she does love her two children. Since Edna does not feel the same way for her husband, feelings for other men start to occur; not only one, but several others. â€Å"Beneath its pink-lined shelter were his wife, Mrs. Pontellier, and young Robert Lebrun. † (Chopin, 2) Robert was one of the men Edna would flirt with and ended up having feelings for. However, Robert cared about Edna too much to have her commit adultery. Both Hester and Edna had to marry during their time, but they did not love their husbands, so they ended up having affairs with another guy, or guys in Edna’s case. Although they both had affairs with someone else, Edna did not actually commit the crime of adultery. She was merely just talking to other guys and developing feelings for them. Hester actually slept with another man and ended up having a baby with him. Hester and Edna’s actions come to show that Hester’s sin is worse than what Edna did, but the two are still very awful. Symbolism plays a huge role in both novels. Pearl is a major dynamic symbol in The Scarlet Letter. She represents the sin of Hester and Dimmesdale. Throughout the novel, she is constantly changing yet still perceived as evil. However, she is named â€Å"Pearl† because of its literal meaning as well. â€Å"But she named the infant ‘Pearl,’ as if being of great price-purchased with all she had-her mother’s only treasure. † (Hawthorne, 85) Pearl is Hester and Dimmesdale’s treasure that they created. The scarlet letter also represents adultery. Hester is to wear it at all times until she finally decides to reveal who the father of Pearl is. The letter prevents Hester from doing whatever she pleases and causes her to become frustrated. As for The Awakening, the Parrot is one of the main symbols. It represents Edna in the way of how her life is like. The parrot is trapped inside a cage and wants to be released so that it can finally spread its wings and fly. This relates to Edna because she wants to escape from her husband, children, and the society so that she can finally be on her own. Water is another symbol in Chopin’s novel. The sea represents Edna’s freedom and escape. It is where she truly feels like she can be herself and safe in solitary. Also, the sea represents rebirth, in which Edna’s awakening is associated with rebirth. However, Edna ends her life in the sea which also shows how horrifying independence can be. The symbols in both stories represent Hester and Edna and how they act. Each symbol does have a different meaning, though and mean different things between each story. It just comes to show how each character is different from each other regarding their personalities and actions. Other characters in the stories affect the main characters and the plot. Dimmesdale, the father of Pearl, is the man Hester committed her sin with. He is forced to hide the fact that he is the father, because Dimmesdale is a respected minister within their society. Dimmesdale and Hester love each other and love Pearl very dearly. Chillingworth is Hester’s husband and is forced to hide his identity by changing his name. He left Hester for 2 years and within those two years, she committed adultery. Chillingworth comes back only to see that Hester has a child with a man that is not him. Chillingworth figured out that it was Dimmesdale and tries to sabotage him. Pearl is Hester and Dimmesdale’s daughter. Pearl tries to make Hester accept er sin. She also makes her mother wear the scarlet letter and will not take it off for the wrong reason. Pearl does not want her mother to run away from her sin but to face up to it, so when Hester tries to run away from her sin, Pearl starts to become stubborn. â€Å"And here by a sudden impulse, she turned to the young clergyman, Mr. Dimmesdale†¦ –â€Å"Speak thou for me! † cried she. â€Å"Thou wast my pastor, and hadst charge of my soul, and knowest me better than these man can. I will not lose the child! Speak for me! Thou knowest–for thou hast sympathies which these men lack†¦ Look thou to it! I will not lose the child! Look to it! † (Hawthorne, 100). By Hester announcing that, it meant that her only true reason for life was for Pearl, and that if the one richness of her life was devoured by Puritan thought and society, she would have lost her. Pearl was everything to her. She was all that she had left to lose, and she would do anything to protect her beloved daughter. In The Awakening, Leonce Pontellier is Edna’s husband and the father of their two children. He does not spend very much time with them due to him always being out doing other goods with his friends or business. Leonce expects Edna to be the perfect wife and mother and treats her with love. Be that as it may, Edna does not feel the same way towards him. Robert is one of Edna’s lovers. During the beginning of the novel, they start flirting with each other, thus developing feelings towards one another. Adele is one of Edna’s good friends and is the ideal female. She helps Edna gain towards her freedom. Mademoiselle Reisz is Edna’s inspiration. She only revolves her life around one thing; music. She has no husband, no children and is a talented pianist. She helps Edna get to where she is during the climax of the story. Hester seems to love Pearl to a greater degree than Edna loves her children, because of her devotion to Pearl, Hester could be seen as stereotypical ‘true woman' more than than Edna does; not exactly. The commitment of adultery with Dimmesdale is keeping her from having that title. Hester, like Edna, believes that society needs to change its attitude towards women and their role in their society. The difference between the two women is that Hester fees that she has something to lose and if she actually spoke her mind, Pearl would be taken away from her. Edna, however, felt so strongly about the injustices within her society that it became more important to her than her love for her children. Both stories are based on the fact that women are not treated fairly within their society. The two women do not endure their husbands, causing them to have affairs with others. Although, the differences create the actual story for each novel and makes them different in their own way. The actions of the characters really show their personalities. The symbols change how the aspects of the novel and characters are interpreted and other characters affect how the main character is changed.

Influence Of Parenting Styles And Practices Globally

Numerous factors have been studied to account for different parenting styles and practices globally. The attitude and response of parents to various parenting practices is based on the knowledge or information they are exposed to or available to them. This study intends to examine the influence of education on parent’s involvement in raising their children especially outside of school. Quantitative method will be utilized based on the secondary data from national survey of parents. LITERATURE REVIEW Parent education probably began with the first grandmother in the cave telling her daughter how to care for a newly arrived infant. One of the relevant biblical quotes â€Å"Thou shalt teach ... diligently unto thy children† (King James Bible).†¦show more content†¦2008). Research on parenting also has shown that parent education is related to a warm, social climate in the home. Shumow and Miller (2001) described parental home involvement as those conversations between parent and child that focused on school experiences, while school involvement was conceptualized as parents’ availability for contact with the school. Epstein and Sanders (2002) looked at both direct behaviors, such as attending parent teacher conferences, and indirect behaviors, such as sharing educational expectations with the child. Research indicates that home involvement had greater impact on academic achievement (VanVoorhis, 2003), while regular parent-child discussions about school and expectations had the greatest impact on educational outcomes of adolescents, including truancy and dropping out (McNeal, 1999). Klebanov et al. (1994) found that both mothers’ education and family income were important predictors of the physical environment and learning experiences in the home but that mothers’ education alone was predictive of parental warmth. Although parental involvement is an important contributor to children’s positive school outcomes, much less is known about the factors that motivate parents’ involvement practices. Avvisati et al. (2010) opined that due to recent local and national reforms, parent’s behavior andShow MoreRelatedJuvenile Delinquency : The Common Poor Parenting, Socioeconomic Status And Peer Pressure Essay1659 Words   |  7 Pagesmost common are poor parenting, socioeconomic status and peer pressure. Juvenile delinquency have increased globally, this new phenomenon can be directly linked to poor parenting techniques. Psychologists believe that the home is the natural school for children hence, parental interactions are vital in preventing delinquency. Over the years, extensive research have linked the styles of parenting used to juvenile delinquency. 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